Models that people imitate take a wide variety of forms. A student may imitate another student, a teacher, a parent, a sports celebrity, a movie star, a cartoon character, a fictional character in a novel, a person demonstrating a skill in an educational film - anyone performing a behavior that can be observed (even in the observer's imagination) can qualify as a model. It is also important to note that the behavior to be imitated takes shape within the mind of the observer. This means that if the observer thinks the model has been reinforced for performing a behavior, then the observer is likely to imitate that behavior - even if the model did not really perform that behavior or even if the model himself perceived the consequences to be unpleasant rather than pleasant. It is even possible to have people serve as models for themselves. For example, a teacher could view a videotape of her own performance in the classroom. If her performance contained errors, feedback from a knowledgeable colleague could enable her to visualize how she would do a better job next time. Athletes often use tapes of themselves during good times to teach themselves ways to improve during a slump in their performance.
Factors of modelingBandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction: the third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation: the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation; learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior differently.
Types of Models
There are different types of models. There is the live model, and actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs. Behaviors that can be learned through modeling: Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can watch the demonstrations of mathematics problems, or seen someone acting bravely and a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through models. Many researches indicate that children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can in part, develop through modeling. Usually Bullies belong to aggressive parents and receives physical punishment at home.
Vicarious Learning
There are three major factors that influence the likelihood that vicarious learning will occur:
1. The similarity of the model to the observer
2. The prestige of the model
3. The observability of the behavior to be imitated
An observer is more likely to imitate a model who is perceived as similar to the observer. Similarity is especially important when observers have little information about the functional value of the modeled behavior (Bandura, 1986). The degree of similarity, of course, is determined within the mind of the observer. A young boy who thinks he is similar to Bard Pit is likely to imitate what he sees Bard Pit doing on television, even if most impartial judges would agree that there is actually not even a remote similarity.
2. The prestige of the model
3. The observability of the behavior to be imitated
An observer is more likely to imitate a model who is perceived as similar to the observer. Similarity is especially important when observers have little information about the functional value of the modeled behavior (Bandura, 1986). The degree of similarity, of course, is determined within the mind of the observer. A young boy who thinks he is similar to Bard Pit is likely to imitate what he sees Bard Pit doing on television, even if most impartial judges would agree that there is actually not even a remote similarity.
An observer is more likely to imitate a model who is perceived as prestigious. Again, the degree of prestige is determined within the mind of the observer. A person who is perceived to be very low in prestige by a parent or teacher may be viewed as highly prestigious by a young child.
Behaviors that are more easily observed are more easily imitated. Observability can be increased by such strategies as having the model perform the behavior very deliberately, using slow-motion or videotaped replays, verbalizing or otherwise focusing attention on behaviors that are difficult to observe, and pairing written instructions with visually modeled behaviors.
Vicarious learning can take place in two forms:
Vicarious reinforcement
Vicarious punishment
- Vicarious reinforcementConsequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where in the model is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll. People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:
- Vicarious reinforcementConsequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where in the model is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll. People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:
• The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group.
• The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.
• The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the same extra work and also receive enjoyment.
- Vicarious punishment
Theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning and not only reinforcement, punishment also influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned. In fact, as we are studying Forensic psychology, concept of vicarious punishment is very important for us to understand. Vicarious punishment is more effective than direct/physical punishment.
The child who is being beaten, become use to such beatings but the child who is observing this, takes very serious effect so, vicarious punishment make that child to be far away from doing that thing.
CriticismsOne important thing that was ignored by Bandore is that he did not pay attention to the importance of BOOKS. While reading a book reader feels the same pain and happiness the characters in book are goingthrough.
The social learning theory advocates that individuals, especially children, imitate or copy modeled behavior from personally observing others, the environment, and the mass media. Biological theorists argue that the social learning theory completely ignores individual’s biological state. Also, they state that the social learning theory rejects the differences of individuals due to genetic, brain, and learning differences. For example, if a person witnessed a hanging or a violent murder, he or she might respond in many different ways. "Biological theorists believed that the responses would be normal and come from the autonomic nervous system. In the autonomic nervous system, the heart rate, increase blood pressure, nausea, and fainting would be normal symptoms of the responses that individuals might expressed in this particular situation. Therefore, the symptoms and behavior are not learned, but partially inherited. In addition, the social learning theory rejects the classical and operant conditioning processes. The biological preparedness of the individual to learn as well as the role of the brain in processing information from the social environment, are critical to learning theory, but they are ignored by the social learning theory).
HUMANISTIC MODEL AND VIOLENCE
HUMANISTIC MODEL AND VIOLENCE
Westerns needed new philosophy after getting far away from churches and religion and that philosophy was called Humanism. But this philosophy came in to psychology quite late by Carl Rogers, who was a psychoanalyst, once he decided to honestly listen to his client with full concern and attention for just first few sessions. So, with out any interpretation he listened to his patient for five sessions and patient get cured.
So that was the turning point for Carl Rogers and he devised a theory that only acceptance can cure a person, no reinforcement and punishment is effective. It seems effective but was totally opposing the mechanisms views of behaviorism.
The Humanistic perspective offers a very positive viewpoint of human nature and potential. Emphasizing the personal worth of each individual, this perspective suggests that we are each responsible for our own happiness and well-being as humans. We have the innate capacity for self-actualization which is our unique desire to achieve our highest potential as people. These matters are often summarized by the five postulates of Humanistic Psychology given by James Bugental (1964), mainly that:
• Human beings cannot be reduced to components.
• Human beings have in them a uniquely human context.
• Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people.
• Human beings have choices and responsibilities.
• Human beings are intentional; they seek meaning, value and creativity.
• And
• All human have natural ability to grow.
• Man is not basically animal, human natural tendency is towards growth, development and
progress.
• Carl Rogers administered the concepts of reinforcement but opposed the wish of
controlling other people.
Then why we encounter the mental problems?If all human beings are innately good and have the potential to grow. Then why they resort to violence? Why they show animalism? Carl Rogers viewed that human encounters mental diseases and resort to aggression because society blocks an individual from growth and development.
• Human beings have in them a uniquely human context.
• Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people.
• Human beings have choices and responsibilities.
• Human beings are intentional; they seek meaning, value and creativity.
• And
• All human have natural ability to grow.
• Man is not basically animal, human natural tendency is towards growth, development and
progress.
• Carl Rogers administered the concepts of reinforcement but opposed the wish of
controlling other people.
Then why we encounter the mental problems?If all human beings are innately good and have the potential to grow. Then why they resort to violence? Why they show animalism? Carl Rogers viewed that human encounters mental diseases and resort to aggression because society blocks an individual from growth and development.
How does one become a person?
1. The individual must make contact with another person
2. The individual develops a need to be loved, referred to as positive regard
3. Finally, the individual then develops a prizing or valuing of one’s self called positive self-regard
